What is the Mongol Period and its greatest contribution to the world history?The Mongol Period divided into six periods from 12th century to 1911: 1. Confederations of Mongol kingdoms 2. The Mongol State 3. The Mongol Empire 4. Pax Mongolica-Expansion of Mongol Empire 5. Fragmentation of Mongols 6. Foreign Domination. The Mongols brought the East and West together. For the first time the Europeans were in touch with East Asia. The tremendous flow of ideas, of products, of people that occurred in the 13th and 14th centuries. It was the greatest contribution the Mongols made in world history. 1. Confederations and kingdoms in the 12th century Before Chingis Khan was born, before Mongol Empire, was formed, there was... A confederation of tribes (Borjigin, Taichuud, Kereit, Burait, Ongut and so forth.) from the 8th century known as Mongols, which eventually transformed into a statehood in the early 12th century and became Hamug (all) Mongol. They occupied one of the most fertile lands of the country-the basins of the river Onon, Kerulen and Tuul in the Hentei mountains. The first khan of Hamug Mongol recorded in history is Khabul Khan from Borjigin clan. Khabul Khan successfully repelled the invasions of Jin Dynasty. Khabul Khan was succeeded by Ambagai khan from Taichuud clan. Ambagai was captured by the Tatars while he came to deliver his daughter as a bride to the Tatar confederation and was given to the Jurchens of Jin Dynasty who cruelly executed him, nailing to a "wooden donkey". Ambagai was succeeded by Hotula khan, son of Kabul khan. Hotula khan was engaged in 13 battles with the Tatars endeavouring to revenge for Ambagai khan. Hamug Mongol was unable to elect a khan after Hotula died, however Kabul's grandson Yesugei Bagatur was an effective leader of Hamug Mongol. Yesugei was poisoned by the Tatars in 1171 when his eldest son Temujin (later became Chingis Khan) was 9 years old. Shortly after Yesugei Bagatur died, Targudai Kiriltug of Taichuud moved away with the subjects of Yesugei leaving young Temujin with his widow mother and younger siblings without support. Hence, Hamug Mongol remained in political crisis until 1189. The Tatar confederation was first recorded in history in 732. The Tatars became subjects of the Kidan in the 10th century. After the fall of the Kidan Empire, the Tatars experienced pressure from the Jin Dynasty and were urged to fight against the other Mongol tribes. The Tatars lived on the fertile pastures around the lakes Kölön and Buir and occupied a trade route to China. The Kereit Khanlyk was located between the mountain ranges of Hangai and Hentei and centered on the site of nowadays city Ulaanbaatar in the willow groves of the Tuul river. Markus was Khan of the Kereit in the 12th century. Markus was succeeded by Tooril khan. In his feud with his brothers for the Kereit throne, he was repeatedly aided by Yesugei Bagatur of Hamug Monggol. The confederation of the Three Merkits was located in the basin of the river Selenge and the Hori Tumet (Buriat) tribes lived around the lake Baikal. The Khanlyk of Naiman was situated between the mountain ranges of Altai and Hangai. The Ongut tribes lived at the north of Gobi. Other tribes and confederations were Olhunoud, Bayud, Hongirad, Oin Irgen ("Taiga People") and so forth. 2. The Birth of Hamug Mongol-the Mongol State (1189-1206) When Tumujin the oldest son of Yesuhei united all Mongol tribes and build the Mongol State in 1206, the congress of Mongol aristocrats enthroned him as the Chinggis Khaanof Hamug Mongol. The journey as a oldest child of fallen knight was not easy. In early age he learned to defended his siblings and mothers from foreign invasion, make true friends, trust people of all kinds, know his enemies, accept his shortfall and survive along... ...Temujin (1162-1227) defeated and subjugated the Merged confederation in 1189 with the support of Tooril Khan of Hereit, the blood brother of his father. Another ally who helped Temujin in this venture was his blood brother Jamuha of Jadargan clan. According to Secret History of Mongols two become blood brothers whenthey were kids. Temujin and Jamuha met in hunting trip when they both shot and killed a same deer. Temujin wanted to share the deer but Jamuha insist they wrestle and whoever win keeps the find. When Temujin won the wrestling, he asked Jamuha to be his blood brother since he liked his straight forward talk. So they become blood brothers... The Mergeds had attacked the home of Temujin. They captured his wife Börte of Hongirad tribe revenging for a much earlier event in which Temujin's father Yesugei deprived a Merged man Chiledu his bride Hoelun of Olhunoud tribe, who became the mother of Temujin. The striving of Temujin to free his wife became a reason for the campaign against the Mergeds. After the defeat of the Mergeds, the reputation of Temiujin rose rapidly. A conflict of the Tatars with the Jin Dynasty became a favourable opportunity for Temujin and Tooril Khan to defeat them in alliance with the Jurchens. At this point, Tooril Khan was grated the title Wang (Chinese for "king") by the Jin court and since then became known as Wang Khan. By the year 1201, the Taichuud and Jurhin tribes were defeated and subjugated. Influential aristocrats of many other tribes and confederations were joining Temujin. In 1201, a crisis ignited in the Khanlyk of Hereit, in which the siblings of Tooril Wang Khan allied with Inancha Khan of Naiman and defeated Tooril. Wang Khan regained power in his kingdom with the support of Temujin. Temujin finally defeated and subjugated the Tatars in 1202 who poisend and killed his dad Yesugei in 1171.
Chingis Haan 1162-1227 (Taiwan National Museum)
Nilha (childish) Sengum, son of Wang Khan, envied Temujin as his power was growing and persuaded his father to battle against Temujin. This venture led to a victory of Temujin and conquest of the Hereit Khanlyk. Wang Khan escaped alone into the southern deserts of the Naiman Khanlyk, where he was caught by the by Naiman patrols, who killed him irritated as he claimed himself as Wang Khan. Tayan khan of Naiman and his son Kuchulug initiated a campaign against Temujin in 1204. They allied with Jamuha, who became jealous of Temujin's power. Jamuha competed with Temujin for the power over the Mongolic tribes despite they were three times blood brothers. The Naiman troops outnumbered the Temujin's troops. At night at the eve of the battle, Temujin ordered each of his warrior to light ten bonfires, thus deceiving and demoralizing Tayan khan, who was a weak warlord. Temujin won the battle. Tayan khan was captured but died of his wound, Kuchulug retreated to the river Irtysh where he was overtaken by Temujin and defeated. After this battle, Kuchulug escaped to Gur-Khan of Kara-Kitai. Temujin's blood brother-Jamuha was let go after his capture. By the year 1206, all the tribes and confederations of Mongolia had come under the leadership of Temujin. The success of Temujin in consolidation of the Mongols was due to his flexibility, his cherishing of his friends and his elaborated tactics. Mongol Empire 1206
A congress of the Mongol aristocrats on the river Onon in 1206 enthroned Temujin as Chinggis Khaan (Genghis Khan) as king of Hamug (all) Mongol-the Mongol State. According to history of Mongols a word Chinggis Khaan originated from Tenggis Haan 'ocean + king'. The Religion of Mongols... While most of the Mongolian tribes were Shamanism (worshiped the spirit of the world), Nestorian Christianity was practiced in a number of confederations such as Hereit and Ongut. and the classic Mongol writing was born... As the Khanlyk of Naiman was conquered, Hasar, brother of Temujin, found a dignitary named Tatar-Tonga, who spread the Uygur alphabet among the Mongols. This alphabet became the basis of the Classical Mongol script. Chingis Haan Stone Writing (History of Mongol, Part II, 2003 Edition, Prof. D.Tseveendorj)
3. Birth of Mongol Empire (1207-1227) The Mongol Empire and the states that emerged from it played a major role in the history of the 13th and 14th centuries. Chinggis Khaan and his immediate successors conquered nearly all of Asia and European Russia and sent armies as far as central Europe and Southeast Asia. Genghis Khaan abolished the organization of the former tribes and khanlyks and reformed the country into 95 mingats. In this system, a group of households large enough to mobilize 10 warriors were organized into an arbatu (10 warriors), 10 arbatus were organized into a zagutu (100 warriors), 10 zagutus constituted a mingat (1,000 warriors) and 10 mingats constituted a tumetu or tumen (10,000 warriors). This decimal system was a long tested system that had been inherited from the period of the Huns. With an assumption that each household consisted of 4 persons and every adult male was a warrior, it can be estimated that the entire population of Mongolia was at least 400,000 people and the nation possessed 95,000 cavalrymen. The newly unified Khaanate of Mongolia became an attractive force for many neighbouring peoples and kingdoms. Beginning from the year 1207, the Uyghur state, Taiga people of the river Yenisey and the Karluk kingdom joined Mongolia. The urgent task of Chinggis Khaan was strengthening the independence of his young nation. For a century, the southeastern neighbour Jin Dynasty had been provoking the Mongolic tribes against one another in order to eventually subjugate them. With a purpose of testing the military strength of his state and preparing for a struggle against the Jin Dynasty, Chingis Khaan conquered the Tangut empire Xi-Xia, which pledged vassalage. Black and White Flag of Mongol Army (National History Museum Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia)
Later, the warlord Jebe of Besud clan defeated Kuchulug who had become the gur-khan of Kara-Kitai (Black Kitai). His power was weak as he, a Buddhist, persecuted the indigenous Muslim population. Genghis Khaan intended to develop friendly relations with the Khwarism Empire, which was on a junction of the trade routes connecting the East and the West and dominated Central Asia, Iran and Afghanistan. Genghis Khaan considered himself a supreme ruler of the East and Kwarism Shah a supreme ruler of the West. Kwarism Shah had an opposite view that there should be only one ruler on earth as there is only one sun in the sky. The execution of 450 envoys and tradesmen of Genghis Khaan by Kwarism Shah 1218 was an announcement of war. The Mongol troops invaded Khwarism Empire in 1219. Although Khwarism Shah possessed an army outnumbering the Mongol troops dozen of times, he lacked the courage and initiatives to unite his forces and fight back. The Mongol troops sacked cities Otrar, Buhara, Merv and Samarkand. Shah’s warlord Temur-Melik led a daring resistance when the Mongol troops besieged city Khujand. Shah’s son Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu courageously battled with the Mongol army in 1221, but was defeated and escaped to the river Ind. Pursuing Khwarism Shah in 1220, the scout groups of warlords Jebe and Subedei Bagatur of Urianhan clan conquered northern Iran. They invaded Iraq, Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia in 1221 and entered the territories of the Kipchak Khanate in Crimea and grasslands of the northern Black Sea. The Kipchaks allied with the troops of the principalities of Rus gave battle to the 30,000 cavalrymen of Jebe and Subedei on the river Kalka in May 1223, but were defeated and were chased up to the river Dnieper. The Tangut kingdom denied its obligation as a vassal state to take part in the western campaign of Genghis Khaan. Shortly after returning to Mongolia, the Mongol army invaded the Tangut state in 1226 and conquered in city Ninxia. The Tangut kingdom completely surrendered in March 1227. The 16 year conquests of Genghis Khaan resulted in the formation of the Mongol Empire. Genghis Khan died on the 16th of August of 1227 and was buried at site Ihe Ötög on the southern slopes of the Hentei mountain range. 4. Pax Mongolica-Expansion of Mongol Empire (1228-1266) Pax Latin word pacis 'peace'. An Ihe Kurultai Congress of nobility of 1228 enthroned Ogedei the 3rd son of Chinggis Khaan. He had been nominated by Chinggis Khaan.
Ogoode Khaan (1186-1241) ( Taiwan National Museum )
Ogoodei Khaan made Kharakorum on the river Orkhon the capital of the Mongol Empire. Karakorum had been a military garrison of Genghis Khaan since 1220. The existence of 12 Buddhist temples, 2 Muslim mosques and 1 Christian cathedral in city Karakorum indicates the tolerance of the Mongols to all religions. The construction of the city was supervised by Otchigin, the youngest brother of Genghis Khaan. Ogoodei Khaan established an effective postal Yam system with well organized posts (‘’örtege’’). The system connected the various regions of the whole Empire. Kharakorum the capital city
Ogoodei Haan (aka Ogedei Haan) settled down the rebellions in the countries conquered during his father and led an army himself to put down a revolt in Korea. Ogoodei Khaan completed the conquest of the Jin Dynasty in 1231-1234. He sent princes headed by Batu, son of Zuchi, to the west, and they conquered the Bulgar kingdom on the Volga river and 14 principalities of Rus in 1236-1240, invaded the principalities of Poland, the kingdom of Magyar (together with Slovakia), Moravia (then part of the Holy Roman Empire), and the area of Moldavia in 1241-1242 and approached the Adriatic sea. After his 16-year reign, Ogedei Khaan died in 1241 under suspicious circumstances. A rivalry for the throne began between the faction of the houses of Zuchi and Tului on one side and the faction of the houses of Chagatai and Ogedei on the other side. Ihe Kuriltai of 1246 elected Guyug, son of Ogedei, as Great Khaan. Guyug Khaan died in 1248. The traveller from Italy Giovanni da Pian del Carpine arrived in 1246 and later he wrote the book "Historia Mongolorum quos nos Tartaros appellamus". The faction of Zuchi-Tului houses won the Ihe Kuriltai of 1251 electing Mönghe, son of Tului, as Great Khaan. Mönghe Khaan sent his cousin Hulagu to conquer Iran. Hulagu completed the conquest of Iran in 1256 and conquered Baghdad, Caucasus and Syria in 1257-1259. Willem van Ruysbroeck of Flanders arrived in 1254 and later wrote his account "Itinerarium fratris Willielmi de Rubruquis de ordine fratrum Minorum, Galli, Anno gratia 1253 ad partes Orientales". Mönghe Khaan died in 1259. He did not have a male offspring. Ihe Kuriltai of 1260 elected Ariq Böke, a younger brother of Mönghe Khaan as Great Khaan. The same year, Ariq Böke’s elder brother Kublai, who was warring in China to conquer the Song Dynasty, elevated himself into Khaan of Mongolia in city Shangdu (or known as Kaiping). A long struggle between the two brothers continued between 1261-1266 until Ariq Böke died. The Mongol Empire had a stabilizing effect on the social, cultural and economic life of the inhabitants of the vast Eurasian territory in the 13th and 14th centuries. It enabled exchange of knowledge, inventions and culture between the West and East. This epoch is called Pax Mongolica. In Mongolia, the legacy of Genghis Khaan was a superior law code, a written language, and a historical pride. To be continued...
References: 1. a b c Eleanora Novgorodova, Archäologische Funde, Ausgrabungsstätten und Skulpturen, in Mongolen (catalogue), pp. 14-20 2. "Mongolia: Ethnography of Mongolia". Encyclopeadia Britannica. Retrieved on 2007-07-22. 3. Ch. Yerool-Erdene. "Hyposthesis about relations of the Hunnu with the Greco-Roman world". Newspaper 'Daily News'. 16 November 2007 4. "?.?. ???????. ??????? ?????? ?????". Retrieved on 2007-09-29. 5. a b c Dr., Prof. Ts. Gantulga, Dr. T. Jambaldorj, Dr., Prof. S. Tsolmon, Dr., Prof. J. Zaanhuu, T. Altanceceg, S. Sodnam (2005). ???????? ???? II. 6. "Mongolia: Ethnography of Mongolia". Encyclopeadia Britannica. Retrieved on 2007-07-22. 7. "Chronological table of history of Siberia and Mongolia". Historical Server of Central Asia. Retrieved on 2007-10-09. 8. Sagan Cecen, Erdeniin Tobchi 9. Lobzangdanzan, Altan Tobchi 10. Library & Information Technology Association - Yaruu setgegch sonin 11. Wikidepia, History of Mongols
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